• Urine in pregnancy « detection » is used since ~1350 BC and animal-based urine tests since 1927.
  • 1920's A-Z testing (mice)
  • 1930's Xenopus testing (shortly after a missed menstrual period)
• Antibodies, hCG, are used since 1962, 1971 for more precise manipulation, and modern urine pregnancy test are available since 1988.
• hCG Pregnancy Urine Test Strip from Manufacturers and Suppliers cost between 0.01 US$ and 0.03 US$ (China, India, Singapore, Canada) [^1]
• Every two minutes, somewhere in the world, a woman dies in childbirth or from pregnancy-related causes. One-third of these maternal deaths occur in just two countries: India, with 20 percent of total maternal mortality (56,000 deaths), and Nigeria, with 14 percent (40,000 deaths). <source needed>
• "Social media" tests: argue for changes in different solutions: Bleach, salt, vinegar, sugar, oil, toothpaste, and soap. Though there is no proven evidence that these methods work, they are constantly consulted (at least 6 million views (way more than a scientific article)). It adds confusion for those in need and social, health and hygiene risks. Today, human chorionic gonadotropin is the main path to detect pregnancy with urine test

"Teenage pregnancy is a worldwide phenomenon affecting both developed and developing countries [1]. About 15 million women/girls aged under 20 years give birth each year, roughly 11% of all births worldwide. The vast majority of these births, almost 95%, occur in developing countries [2]. In Egypt, by the age of 19 years, one-fifth of married women have already begun childbearing [3]" WHO

« In a study of pregnant women in South West Nigeria, 97% reported relying on their husbands for money to access antenatal testing and care » FIND, WHG, WPL, November 2020 report Testing and Women's Empowerment means Better Health for All

OTHER TYPE OF TESTS

• Placental protein detection (like PP13 (galectin-13) for example)
• Placental lactogen (hPL) [Men and Non-Pregnant Women: 0 - 0.1 mcg/mL − 1st Trimester of Pregnancy:0.2 - 2.1 mcg/mL − 2nd Trimester of Pregnancy:0.5 – 6.7 mcg/mL − 3rd Trimester of Pregnancy:4.5 – 12.8 mcg/mL]
• Alpha-fetoprotein: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-fetoprotein
• In the early times, Saliva drying patterns were observed under microscopes to confirm the presence of a particular hormone.

https://youtu.be/3hvWBC-pTvY

🇫🇷FRANCE

• Minimum Wage
• National health coverage policy:
• National abortion policy :
• Number of deaths of women in early pregnancy :